The background and pro and con arguments were written by ProCon.org staff based upon input from the following sources.
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2. | Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), "Underage Drinking and the 21 Minimum Legal Drinking Age (MLDA) Law," madd.org (accessed Oct. 20, 2010) |
3. | American Medical Association (AMA), "Minimum Legal Drinking Age," ama-assn.org (accessed July 19, 2013) |
4. | GPO Access, "Title 23--Highways: Chapter 1--Federal-Aid Highways," gpoaccess.gov (accessed June 1, 2009) |
5. | Amethyst Initiative, "Statement," amethystinitiative.org (accessed Oct. 9, 2018) |
6. | Annie Chiappetta, "Should Drinking Age Be 18?," abcnews.com, Apr. 14, 2005 |
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8. | Thomas S. Dee and William N. Evans, "Behavioral Policies and Teen Traffic Safety," American Economic Review, May 2001 |
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12. | Jeffrey A. Miron and Elina Tetelbaum, "The Dangers of the Drinking Age," Forbes, Apr. 15, 2009 |
13. | "2009 Drunk Driving Statistics," alcoholalert.com, 2011 |
14. | Charlie Covey, "Drinking Age Requires Necessary and Proper Action," youthfacts.org, Nov. 11, 2007 |
15. | Will Wilkinson, "Bottoms Up!," Forbes, Sep. 29, 2008 |
16. | Joseph Califano Jr., "The Commercial Value of Underage and Pathological Drinking to the Alcohol Industry," National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University website, May 2006 |
17. | Mark Kleiman, "Of Amethysts and Fake ID's," samefacts.org, Aug. 20, 2008 |
18. | M. Wolfson, A. Wagenaar, and G. Hornseth, "Law Officers' Views on Enforcement of the Minimum Drinking Age: A Four-State Study," hcbi.nlm.nih.gov, July 1995 |
19. | Alexander C. Wagenaar and Traci L. Toomey, "Effects of Minimum Drinking Age Laws: Review and Analyses of the Literature from 1960 to 2000," Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 2002 |
20. | US Federal Trade Commission (FTC), "Dangers of Teen Drinking," dontserveteens.gov (accessed Oct. 20, 2010) |
21. | Birckmayer J and Hemenway D, "Minimum-age Drinking Laws and Youth Suicide, 1970 –1990," American Journal of Public Health, 1999 |
22. | American Academy of Pediatrics, "Policy Statement--Alcohol Use by Youth and Adolescents: A Pediatric Concern," Pediatrics, Apr. 12, 2010 |
23. | US Department of Human Health and Services (DHHS), "The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Reduce Underage Drinking," hhs.gov, 2007 |
24. | James C. Fell, "An Examination of the Criticisms of the Minimum Legal Drinking Age 21 Laws in the United States from a Traffic-safety Perspective," udetc.org, Oct. 2008 |
25. | Kathryn Stewart, "How Alcohol Outlets Affect Neighborhood Violence," Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation website (accessed Mar. 28, 2012) |
26. | National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, "Traffic Safety Facts," nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov, 2008 |
27. | "Results of the 2007 National Roadside Survey of Alcohol and Drug Use by Drivers," National Highway Traffic Safety Administration website, July 2009 |
28. | Bettina Friese and Joel W. Grube, "Youth Drinking Rates and Problems: A Comparison of European Countries and the United States," Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation website, 2010 |
29. | Honorable Ralph Guy Jr., "Ref. Civil No. 8-73015 and Civil No. 8-73159," US District Court, Eastern District of Michigan, Southern Division, Detroit, Michigan, Dec. 22, 1978 |
30. | Carl F. Pieper, et al., "Effect of Legal Drinking Age on Fatal Injuries of Adolescents and Young Adults," American Journal of Public Health, 1992 |
31. | Alexander C. Wagenaar, et al., "Where and How Adolescents Obtain Alcoholic Beverages," Public Health Reports, 1993 |
32. | Alexander C. Wagenaar, et al., "Public Opinion on Alcohol Policies in the United States: Results from a National Survey," Journal of Public Health Policy, 2000 |
33. | Joseph Carroll, "Most Americans Oppose Lowering Legal Drinking Age to 18 Nationwide," gallup.com, July 27, 2007 |
34. | Rhonda Jones-Webb, "Why and in What Context Adolescents Obtain Alcohol from Adults: A Pilot Study," Substance Use and Misuse, 1997 |
35. | "Youth Access to Alcohol," Alcohol Epidemiology Program at the University of Minnesota (accessed Mar. 22, 2012) |
36. | "Results from the 2007 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings," Department of Health and Human Services website, Sep. 2008 |
37. | James C. Fell, "Drinking Age 21: Facts, Myths and Fictions," American Association for Automotive Medicine website, 1985 |
38. | Denise Kandel, et al., "Stages of Progression in Drug Involvement from Adolescence to Adulthood: Further Evidence for the Gateway Theory," Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 1992 |
39. | Peter O'Malley and Alexander C. Wagenaar, "Effects of Minimum Drinking Age Laws on Alcohol Use, Related Behaviors, and Traffic Crash Involvement Among American Youth: 1976-1987," Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 1991 |
40. | J.H. Hedlund, R.G. Ulmer, and D.F. Preusser, "Determine Why There Are Fewer Young Alcohol Impaired Drivers," nhtsa.dot.gov, Sep. 2001 |
41. | "Age of Majority," youthrights.net (accessed Oct. 20, 2010) |
42. | Patrick O'Malley and Alexander C. Wagenaar, "Minimum Drinking Age Laws: Effects on American Youth," Institute for Social Research website, monitoringthefuture.org, 1990 |
43. | Alexander Wagenaar and Traci Toomey, "Illegal Alcohol Sales to Obviously Intoxicated Patrons at Licensed Establishments," Alcohol Clinical Experimental Research, 2004 |
44. | David Eby, "The Convicted Drunk Driver in Michigan: A Profile of Offenders," UMTRI Research Review, 1995 |
45. | Lise Anglin, et. al., "A Study of Impaired Drivers Stopped by Police in Sudbury, Ontario," Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation website, 1997 |
46. | Mary A. O'Donnell, "Research on Drinking Locations of Alcohol-impaired Drivers: Implications for Prevention Policies," Journal of Public Health Policy, 1985 |
47. | US Supreme Court, "Craig v. Boren," justia.com, Dec. 20, 1976 |
48. | World Health Organization, "Global Status Report on Road Safety 2015," who.int, 2015 |
49. | Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), "Results from the 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed Tables," samhsa.gov, 2016 |
50. | Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), "Drunk Driving,” samhsa.gov (accessed May 11, 2018) |
51. | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, "Fact Sheets – Age 21 Minimum Legal Drinking Age," cdc.gov, May 10, 2018 |
52. | European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD): Alcohol," espad.org, 2015 |
53. | European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD): Patterns of Current Use," espad.org, 2015 |
54. | Center for Alcohol Policy, "National Survey: Public’s Concern over Alcohol Misuse Remains High," centerforalocholpolicy.org, 2017 |
55. | World Health Organization, "Alcohol: Key Facts," who.int, Sep. 21, 2018 |
56. | Cornell University Legal Information Institute, “Age of Majority,” law.cornell.edu, Nov. 2021 |
57. | WHO, “Alcohol,” who.int, May 9, 2022 |
58. | Cornell Law School Legal Information Institute, "Legal Age," law.cornell.edu, June 2020 |
59. | US Courts, "Juror Qualifications," uscourts.gov (accessed Sep. 8, 2022) |
60. | Jackie Burrell, "Information Parents Need to Know When a Child Turns 18," verywellfamily.com, May 4, 2020 |
61. | Cornell Law School Legal Information Institute, "Marriage Laws," law.cornell.edu (accessed Sep. 8, 2022) |
62. | USA.gov, "Join the Military," usa.gov, June 14, 2022 |
63. | Justin Pritchard, "When Is the Best Age to Buy a Home?," thebalance.com, Mar. 6, 2022 |
64. | Bethany Fowler, “State Rep. Todd Rutherford Wants to Lower SC Drinking Age to 18,” wnct.com, Nov. 10, 2021 |
65. | Responsibility.org, "The Fight against Underage Drinking | Stats on Teen Alcohol Use," responsibility.org (accessed Sep. 8, 2022) |
66. | The Recovery Village, "Teen Drinking Facts and Statistics," therecoveryvillage.com, Apr. 30, 2022 |
67. | Alcohol Problems and Solutions, "Drinking Learners Permit Would Reduce Alcohol Abuse," alcoholproblemsandsolutions.org (accessed Sep. 8, 2022) |
68. | Alexander Ahammer, et al., "Minimum Legal Drinking Age and the Social Gradient in Binge Drinking," cepr.org, Mar. 27, 2021 |
69. | Sheila Kaplan, "Congress Approves Raising Age to 21 for E-Cigarette and Tobacco Sales," nytimes.com, Dec. 19, 2019 |
70. | FDA, "Newly Signed Legislation Raises Federal Minimum Age of Sale of Tobacco Products to 21," fda.gov, Jan. 15, 2020 |
71. | Dara Lee Luca, Emily Owens, and Gunjan Sharma, "The Effectiveness and Effects of Alcohol Regulation: Evidence from India," IZA Journal of Development and Migration</em>, 2019 |
72. | Little League University, "Determining League Age for Tee Ball," littleleague.org (accessed Sep. 8, 2022) |
73. | Michael Kaskey-Blomain, "Adam Silver in Favor of Lowering NBA Age Limit from 19 to 18 Years Old: ‘It’s the Right Thing to Do’," cbssports.com, July 13, 2022 |
74. | Social Security Administration, "Starting Your Retirement Benefits Early," ssa.gov (accessed Sep. 8, 2022) |
75. | Denise Witmer, "Driving Age by State," verywellfamily.com, Aug. 14, 2021 |